Cognition involves the gathering and processing of information and includes sensation, perception, learning, memory, thinking, language, and problem-solving.
Thought involves reasoning, problem-solving, producing and understanding language, drawing conclusions, and generating new ideas (creativity).
The prefrontal cortex plays a special role in problem-solving and planning.
Mental images are representations of sensory experiences.
Concept Learning
Concepts are mental structures used to categorize information sharing similar characteristics (colour, size, etc.). They may represent concrete objects or ideas.
Theories explaining learning of new concepts:
- Artificial concepts arise from logical rules or form definitions
- Natural concepts rely on prototypes of a “best example”
- Hierarchies are concepts that have been ranked with specific subcategories within broader concepts
Problem Solving
Preparation lays the groundwork
- Identify given facts
- Distinguish relevant from irrelevant facts
- Define the ultimate goal
Production involves generating hypotheses
- Algorithms will generate a solution
- Heuristics are educated guesses
- Means-end analysis
- Working backwards
- Creation of subgoals
Evaluation asks whether the generated solutions satisfy the problem.
Barriers to Problem Solving
- Mental set occurs when prior experiences in solving problems lead to an inability to solve future problems (stuck using old strategies)
- Functional fixedness occurs when a person is unable to recognize a new use for a familiar object (using a knife as a screwdriver)
- Confirmation bias is the inclination to only use evidence that fits preconceived ideas
- Availability heuristic involves judging the probability of events based on how readily available other instances are in our mind
- Representativeness heuristic is the tendency to estimate the probability of something based on how well the circumstances match our previous prototype
Creativity
Creativity is the ability to create novel solutions to problems.
Characteristics of creative thinking include:
- Originality - the ability to see unique solutions
- Fluency - the generation of many solutions
- Flexibility - the ability to shift problem-solving strategies
Measures of creativity include the Unusual Uses Test and the Anagrams Test.
Language
Language is a form of communication using sounds and symbols which are combined according to formal rules.
- Phonemes are basic English sounds
- Morphemes are the smallest meaningful units (e.g., prefixes and suffixes)
- Grammar provides rules for language
- Syntax refers to the rules for word order
- Semantics refers to the study of meaning from words and word combinations
Language and Thought
Whorf’s linguistic relativity hypothesis states that language determines the perception of reality. In actuality, language only influences thought.
Thursday Notes
Intelligence Testing
Monday Notes
IQ Issues
- Socioeconomic status: middle class kids tend to outperform lower class kids
- Language status: children from dominant culture tend to perform better
- Age: Timed IQ test scores tend to decline with age
- Heredity: identical twins raised apart score similarly
Mental Retardation
- Refers to below average intellectual functioning (IQ < 70)
Mental Giftedness
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Gifted refers to persons with IQ scores between top 1% - 2%
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Terman’s study of 1500 gifted students starting in 1921 found that they were more likely to have professional careers, earn more money, and were happier and healthier by 1950.
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Bigger brain does not necessarily indicate higher intelligence
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Faster response time is related to higher intelligence
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Areas of the brain involved in problem-solving show less activity in people of higher intelligence