Chapter 6 – Learning

Learning refers to a relatively permanent change in behaviour resulting from practice or experience.

• Anything learned can be unlearned
• Observation can lead to learning

Conditioning

Classical Conditioning

Certain stimuli can elicit a reflexive response.

• Reflexive stimulus (UCS) and response (UCR) are unconditioned

The neutral stimulus (NS) is repeatedly paired with the UCS. The NS will eventually become a conditioned stimulus (CS) after it is repeatedly paired with the UCS.

Eventually, the CS will produce a CR similar to that of the UCS. Pavlov’s dog is a famous example of classical conditioning.

Conditioning of Emotional Responses

Definition

A conditioned emotional response is a classically conditioned emotional response to a previously neutral stimulus.

John Watson documented that emotional responses could be conditioned in the Little Albert study.

• CS: rat
• UCS: loud banging sound
• UCR: fear response

Albert eventually exhibited fear of the white rat.

Examples of Classical Conditioning

Conditioning of attraction in advertising (learning):

• Brand name (CS) + attractive model (UCS) $\Rightarrow$ liking (UCR)

Aversion:

• Flavour (CS) + illness (UCS) $\Rightarrow$ flavour aversion (UCR)

Prejudice, phobias, medical treatments, and advertising are common examples of classical conditioning.

Generalization and Discrimination

Stimulus Generalization: Learned response to similar stimuli, not only the original

• Little Albert feared stimuli resembling the white rat

Stimulus Discrimination: Learned response only to a specific stimulus

• Pavlov’s dogs could discriminate between tones

Extinction

Conditioning vs. Extinction

CS + UCS $⟶$ conditioning

CS $⟶$ loss of the conditioned response

Extinction: Loss of response to a CS without the UCS

• Extinction is different from forgetting

Extinction is useful in clinical situations. For example, phobias may be treated by exposure to only the CS.

Spontaneous Recovery: Reappearance of CR post-extinction

Higher-Order Conditioning

Definition

NS + CS${}_0$ $⟶$ CS

CS $⟶$ CR${}_0$

For example, children learn to pair McDonald’s with food, and later learn that the golden arches a symbol for McDonalds.

Operant Conditioning

Responses are chosen by organisms based on consequences, which serve to increase or decrease the likelihood of making the same response again (based on reward/punishment). Operant conditioning was first discovered by Thorndike, but pioneered by Skinner.

Responses can be associated with cues in the environment. For example, coins are inserted into a vending machine to obtain food, however, we do not put coins in the machine when an out of order sign is placed on the machine.

Key Aspects of Operant Conditioning

• The stimulus does not elicit the response, as it is only a cue
• Cue responses are voluntary
• Response elicits a reinforcing stimulus, whereas UCS elicits a reflexive response in classical conditioning

Key Terms of Operant Conditioning

• Reinforcement: any procedure that increases response
• Punishment: any procedure that decreases response
• Primary (Natural) Reinforcer: satisfies a biological need (e.g., food/water)
• Secondary Reinforcer: has a learned value (e.g., money)

	Reinforcement	Punishment
Positive ($+$/ additive)	giving food, praise, money, a good grade, gold stars	giving pain, extra homework, a bad grade, a chore,
Negative ($-$/subtractive)	removing pain, taking away a chore, cancelling homework	taking away food, money (e.g., fines), freedom

Side Effects of Punishment

• Increased aggression
• Passive aggressiveness
• Avoidance
• Modeling
• Temporary suppression
  • Change behaviour to not get caught
• Learned helplessness
  • Occurs when not rewarded for efforts

Shaping

Skinner used shaping in his rat experiments. Behaviour that is incremental to the target is rewarded, rather than purely the desired behaviour.

Schedules of Reinforcement

• Continuous reinforcement occurs after every response. Acquisition is fast, but so is extinction
• Partial reinforcement occurs after some responses. Responses are more resistant to extinction
• Ratio schedules are based on responses
  • Fixed ratio: after every n${}^{\text{th}}$ response
  • Variable ratio: ratio varies unpredictably
• Interval schedules are based on time
  • Fixed interval: interval is some fixed length
  • Variable interval: interval varies unpredictably

Applying Operant Conditioning

• Feedback should provided clearly and immediately
• Reinforcement and punishment should be presented as close in time to the response as possible
• Reinforcement and punishment should be consistent
• Feedback should follow behaviour

Biofeedback

Sensory feedback provided by the autonomic nervous system is not adequate enough to allow the brain to consciously control biological functions. Electronic devices can sense and control ANS functions such as blood pressure and heart rate.

Operant and Classical Conditioning – Shared Terms (p. 220-221)

Shared Terms

• Extinction
• Spontaneous recovery
• Generalization
• Discrimination

Tolman’s Rats

A cognitive map is a mental representation of a 3D space that an organism has navigated.

In Tolman’s rat experiments, rats developed a cognitive map of a maze when exploring without reinforcement. The rats were then able to quickly navigate the maze when food was presented.

This is known as latent learning, which has no behavioural signs until needed.

Observational Learning

Models are individuals performing the behaviours intended to be imitated.

Bandura’s social learning theory suggests that thought processes play a role in learning, which is why it can occur without external reinforcement.

Insight is a sudden understanding of a problem implying the solution.

Scaffolding combines shaping and modelling, where an experienced person adjusts the amount of guidance provided to the subjects level of performance.

Biology Stuff

During learning, new synaptic connections are created, NT reception is altered, and structural changes occur.

Instincts are unlearned (innate) behaviours.

Biological preparedness refers to an inbuilt preparedness to form associations between certain stimuli and responses.

Instinctive drift refers to the tendency for some conditioned responses to drift toward innate response patterns. For example, dogs may chase humans (playfully) despite knowing that they are friendly.

The law of effect states that behaviours with desirable outcomes are more likely to be repeated while behaviours with less desirable outcomes are less likely to be repeated.

	Classical Conditioning	Operant Conditioning
Generalization	Conditioned response occurs to a variety of similar stimuli	Behaviours similar to reinforced behaviour are performed
Discrimination	Conditioned response only occurs to specific conditioned stimulus	Opposite of generalization
Extinction	Conditioned response decreases after being presented repeatedly without unconditioned stimulus	Behaviour decreases when no reinforcement is provided
Spontaneous Recovery	Conditioned response reappears after a pause following extinction	Behaviour reappears after rest period in absence of reinforcement
Higher Order/Discriminative Stimulus	Neutral stimulus becomes conditioned stimulus when paired with conditioned stimulus	Behaviour only occurs in presence of a specific stimulus

	Reinforcement	Punishment
Positive	Giving money	Giving chores
Negative	Taking away chores	Taking away phone

Kohler discovered insight, which is a sudden understanding that implies the solution. For example, you may realize out what was wrong with your solution for an answer on a math test the following morning in chemistry class.

Tolman discovered latent learning, which is learning that occurs without demonstration until needed. Latent learning occurs in everyday life when you walk to school from home and know the driving directions without needing to look them up when you get a car.

Multiple Choice Questions (/25)

1. Definition of conditioning
2. Pavlov’s classical conditioning experiment (identify stimulus and response)
3. Definition of unconditioned stimulus
4. Neutral stimulus
5. Conditioned emotional response (phobia etc.)
6. Little Albert experiment UCS (loud noise)
7. Stimulus generalization
8. Stimulus discrimination (application question)
9. Extinction (response decreases)
10. Spontaneous recovery (sudden reappearance of behaviour)
11. Operant conditioning (behaviour and consequence)
12. What are the effects of reinforcement and punishment (decrease/increase)
13. What are primary reinforcers (biological needs)
14. What are secondary reinforcers
15. Schedules of reinforcement
16. Shaping (guiding behaviour that leads toward desired behaviour)
17. Side effects of punishment (avoidance etc.)
18. When feedback should be given (after behaviour)
19. Biofeedback
20. Superstition
21. Insight (sudden understanding)
22. Cognitive map (mental representation of space)
23. Tolman’s latent learning (undemonstrated learning)
24. Modeling (copying behaviour)
25. Biological preparedness (biological preparedness to form associations)